In the 19th and 20th Centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade. During World War II, the island hosted important military installations and Allied forces. However, the plantation economy aggravated poverty and economic inequality. From 1948 to 1977socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. While the standard of living and literacy improved significantly, the nation's economy suffered from inefficiency, slow growth and lack of foreign investment. From 1977 the UNP government began incorporating privatisation, deregulation and promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains important, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrialised economy with the development of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of export, and further declined to 16.8% in 2005 (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments have reached 63%. The GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the firstrecession in the country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Colombo Stock Exchange reported the highest growth in the world for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita income in South Asia.
In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in economic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickremesinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coalition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the leftist-nationalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the United People's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privatization of state enterprises and reforms of state utilities such as power and petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy program called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main theme to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the domestic economy from external influences, such as oil prices, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Sri Lanka, with an income per head of US$1,400, still lags behind some of its neighbors includingMaldives and Mauritius but is ahead of its giant neighbor India. Its economy grew by an average of 5% during the 1990s during the 'War for Peace' era. According to the Sri Lankan central bank statistics, the economy was estimated to have grown by 7% last year, while inflation reached 20%. Parts of Sri Lanka, particularly the South and East coast, were devastated by the 2004 Asian Tsunami. The economy was briefly buoyed by an influx of foreign aid and tourists, but this was disrupted with the reemergence of the civil war resulting in increased lawlessness in the country[31] and a sharp decline in tourism.[32][33]
Administrative divisions
Provinces
The Provinces of Sri Lanka (Sinhala: පළාà¶) have existed since the 19th century but they didn't have any legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 Constitution of Sri Lanka established provincial councils following several decades of increasing demand for adecentralization of the Government of Sri Lanka.[34] Between 1988 and 2006 the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province. Prior to 1987, all administration was handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times.
Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces[35] and 25 districts.[36] Each province is administered by a directly-elected provincial council:
province  | Capital | Area (km²) | Population |
|---|---|---|---|
| Central | Kandy | 5,674 | 2,423,966 |
| Eastern | Trincomalee | 9,996 | 1,460,939 |
| North Central | Anuradhapura | 10,714 | 1,104,664 |
| Northern | Jaffna | 8,884 | 1,311,776 |
| North Western | Kurunegala | 7,812 | 2,169,892 |
| Sabaragamuwa | Ratnapura | 4,902 | 1,801,331 |
| Southern | Galle | 5,559 | 2,278,271 |
| Uva | Badulla | 8,488 | 1,177,358 |
| Western | Colombo | 3,709 | 5,361,200 |
Districts
The provinces of Sri Lanka are divided into 25 districts (Sinhala:දිà·ƒ්à¶්රික්ක sing. දිà·ƒ්à¶්රික්කය). Each district is administered under a District Secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into divisional secretariats, and these in turn to Grama Sevakadivisions.
The Districts are known in Sinhala as Disa. Originally a Disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva. The Government Agent, who is know as District Secretary administers a district.
These were originally based on the feudal counties, the korales and ratas. They were formerly known as 'D.R.O. Divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'. Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the Divisions were known as 'A.G.A. Divisions'. Currently, the Divisions are administered by a 'Divisional Secretary', and are known as a 'D.S. Divisions'. Rural D.S. Divisions are also administered by a 'Pradeshiya Sabha' (Sinhala for 'Regional Council'), which is elected.
Cities
| Rank | City | Province | Population | Rank | City | Division | Population | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Colombo | Western | 682 046 | 11 | Galle | Southern | 97 209 | |||
| 2 | Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | Western | 232 220 | 12 | Batticaloa | Eastern | 95 489 | |||
| 3 | Moratuwa | Western | 202 021 | 13 | Katunayake | Western | 90 231 | |||
| 4 | Negambo | Western | 142 451 | 14 | Battaramulla | Western | 84 200 | |||
| 5 | Trincomalee | Eastern Province | 131 954 | 15 | Dambulla | Central Province | 75 290 | |||
| 6 | Kotte | Westerne | 125 914 | 16 | Dalugama | Western | 74 129 | |||
| 7 | Kandy | Central | 119 186 | 17 | Maharagama | Western | 74 117 | |||
| 8 | Kalmunai | Eastern | 103 879 | 18 | Kotikawatta | Western | 71 879 | |||
| 9 | Vavuniya | Northern | 101 143 | 19 | Chavakachcheri | Northern | 70 273 | |||
| 10 | Jaffna | Northern | 98 193 | 20 | Anuradhapura | North Central | 66 951 | |||
| 2009 estimation[37] | ||||||||||
Demographics
Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.79%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is the greatest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around Colombo. There is a small population on the island of the Vedda people. These are believed to be the oldest and indigenous ethnic group to inhabit the island. The Sinhalese people form the largest ethnic group in the nation, composing approximately 81.9% of the total population. Tamils are concentrated in the North, East, Central andWestern provinces of the country. Tamils who were brought as indentured labourers from India by British colonists to work on estate plantations, nearly 50% of whom were repatriated following independence in 1948,[38][page needed] are called "Indian Origin" Tamils. They are distinguished from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri Lanka since ancient times. According to 2001 census data Indian Tamils makeup 5.1% of the Sri Lankan population and, Sri Lankan Tamils 4.3% but this figure only accounted for Sri Lankan Tamils in government-controlled areas, not accounting for those in rebel-held territories. The World Factbook states that Sri Lankan Tamils make up 14% of the population. There is a significant population (8.0%) of Moors, who trace their lineage to Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East. Their presence is concentrated in the cities and the central and eastern provinces. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia.
Language
Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. English is spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutchwith varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of creole Malay that is unique to the island.
Religions
Sri Lanka has a multi ethnic and multi religious population. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,[39][40] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism.[41] According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by VenerableMahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiyatissa.[41] During this time, a sapling of theBodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries were established under the sponsorship of the Sri Lankan king. ThePali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC.[42]
Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,[41] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[42] Periods of Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences — most recently in the 19th century — have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2000 years.
| Sri Lanka religiosity | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| religion | percent | |||
| Buddhism | 69.1% | |||
| Islam | 7.6% | |||
| Hinduism | 7.1% | |||
| Christianity | 6.2% | |||
| Other | 10% | |||
The second largest religions are Islam and Hinduism with both 7% respectively. Hinduism was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India,[43] and Hindus now constitute seven to fifteen percent of the population,[40][44] mostly of the Shaiviteschool.[citation needed] Followers of Islam comprise approximately eight percent of the population,[40] having been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries[45] European colonists introducedChristianity to the country in the 16th century,[46] and the religion has been adopted by around six percent of the population.[40] There also was a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule. As a result of emigration, few remain, yet they have played a significant role in the growth of the country. The former finance minister of Sri Lanka, Nariman Choksy, was a Parsi. Other famous Parsi families in Sri Lanka include the Captain family and the Pestongee family.
Religion plays an important part in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many mosques, Hindu temples and churchesacross the island, especially in areas where respective communities are concentrated. Buddhists are distributed across most parts of the island except in the north. Hindus are concentrated in north, east, and central high lands. Christians, particularly Roman Catholics are mainly concentrated along the western coastal belt. Muslims are concentrated in several pockets along the coast and in interior. All religious communities are represented in western province and in other urban centers in sizable numbers.
Education
With a literacy rate of 92%, and 83% of the total population having had Secondary Education,[47] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[48] An education system which dictates 9 years of Compulsory Schooling for every child is in place, with 99% of the children entering the first grade.[47] A free education system initiated in 1945[49] by Dr. C. W. W. Kannangara, a former minister of education, has greatly contributed to this. Mr. Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural population. In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However in the 1980s changers to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government.
Most schools in Sri Lanka provide education from grades 1 to 13 in the same institution. Students sit for theGCE Ordinary Level Examination (O/Levels) in grade 11 and the GCE Advanced Level Examination(A/levels) in grade 13, conducted by the Department of Examinations. These schools are modeled on British colleges. A majority of them are public, but a number of private schools do exist. While most reputed National and Private Schools centered around large cities are usually single-sex institutions, rural provincial schools tend to be coeducational. In recent decades, a large number of international schools have been established across the nation. In these schools General Certificate of Secondary Education, International Baccalaureate and Cambridge International Examinations arepopular education programs.
Sri Lanka has around 16 public universities. They include the University of Colombo, the University of Peradeniya, the University of Kelaniya, the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, the University of Moratuwa, the University of Peradeniya, the University of Jaffna, the University of Ruhuna, the Eastern University of Sri Lanka, the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka and the Wayamba University of Sri Lanka. However the lack of space in these institutions and the unwillingness to establish private universities has led to a large number of students been denied entry into formal universities as well as high undergraduate unemployment. As a result, a number of public and private institutions have emerged, which provide specialised education in a variety of fields, such as computer science, business administration and law. These include the government owned Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology and the Institute of Technological Studies.
Transport
Most Sri Lankan cities and towns are connected by the Sri Lanka Railways, the state-run national railwayoperator. The first railway line was inaugurated on April 26, 1867, linking Colombo with Kandy. The total length of Sri Lankan roads exceeds 11,000 kilometres (6,840 mi), with a vast majority of them being paved. The government has launched several highway projects to bolster the economy and national transport system, including the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, the Colombo-Kandy (Kadugannawa) Expressway, the Colombo-Padeniya Expressway and the Outer Circular Highway to ease Colombo's traffic congestion. There are also plans to build a major bridge connecting Jaffna to the Indian city of Chennai.
The Ceylon Transport Board is the state-run agency responsible for operating public bus services across the island. Sri Lanka also maintains 430 kilometres (270 mi) of inland waterways. It has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Trincomalee and Galle. There is also a smaller, shallower harbour at Kankesanturai, north of Jaffna. There are twelve paved airports and two unpaved airstrips in the country. SriLankan Airlines is the official national carrier, partly owned and operated by Emirates Airline. It was voted the best airline in South Asia by Skytrax. SriLankan Air Taxi is the smaller, domestic arm of the national carrier, while Expo Aviation and Lankair are private airline companies. The Bandaranaike International Airport is the country's onlyinternational airport, located in Katunayaka, 22 kilometres (14 mi) north of Colombo.
Human rights
The human Rights situation in Sri Lanka has come under criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[50] as well as the United States Department of State[51] and the European Union,[52] have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka. Both the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. In its 2007 report, however, Amnesty International stated that "escalating political killings, child recruitment, abductions and armed clashes created a climate of fear in the east, spreading to the north by the end of the year", whilst also outlining concerns with violence against women, the death penalty and "numerous reports of torture in police custody". However, the report also stated that the ceasefire between government and LTTE remained in place despite numerous violations.[53] However, the Sri Lankan minister for HR said "We regret one or two statements made here, that fly in the face of all concrete evidence, that the situation in Sri Lanka is deteriorating, when we have dealt more firmly with terrorism, with far-less damage to civilians, than in any comparative situation."[54] Foreign Minister Rohitha Bogollagama said, the report presents a distorted view of the actual situation in Sri Lanka during the year 2007 and is a litany of unsubstantiated allegations, innuendo and vituperative exaggerations.[55]
Sri Lanka's government is labeled as one of the "world's worst perpetrators of enforced disappearances", according to a study by US-based pressure group 'Human Rights Watch' (HRW). An HRW report accuses security forces and pro-government militias of abducting and "disappearing" hundreds of people - mostly Tamils - since 2006. Sri Lanka's government says HRW has exaggerated the scale of the problem. The report said, "The number of disappearances carried out by the Tamil Tigers in government-controlled areas was relatively low. But, the Tigers were responsible for targeted killings, forced child recruitment, bomb attacks on civilians and the repression of basic rights in areas they controlled."[56]
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