The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law."[43] It is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy, though U.S. citizens residing in the territories are excluded from voting for federal officials.[44]The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government, federal, state, and local; the local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels. Federal and state judicial and cabinet officials are typically nominated by the executive branch and approved by the legislature, although some state judges and officials are elected by popular vote.
The federal government is composed of three branches:
- Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makesfederal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse, and has the power ofimpeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.
- Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
- Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the president with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.
The House of Representatives has 435 members, each representing acongressional district for a two-year term. House seats are apportionedamong the states by population every tenth year. As of the 2000 census, seven states have the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state, has fifty-three. The Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The president serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The president is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned by state. The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life. The state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral legislature. The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected.
All laws and procedures of both state and federal governments are subject to review, and any law ruled in violation of the Constitution by the judiciary is voided. The original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One protects the right to the "great writ" of habeas corpus, and Article Three guarantees the right to a jury trial in all criminal cases. Amendments to the Constitution require the approval of three-fourths of the states. The Constitution has been amended twenty-seven times; the first ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights.
Parties, ideology, and politics
The United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history. For elective offices at all levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote.
Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered center-right or "conservative" and the Democratic Party is considered center-left or "liberal". The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as "blue states", are relatively liberal. The "red states" of the Southand parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.
The winner of the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th U.S. president and the first African American to hold the office. All previous presidents were men of solely European descent. The 2008 elections also saw the Democratic Party strengthen its control of both the House and the Senate. In the 111th United States Congress, the Senate comprises 58 Democrats, two independents who caucus with the Democrats, and 40 Republicans; the House comprises 257 Democrats and 178 Republicans.
Political divisions
Further information: Territorial evolution of the United States and Territorial acquisitions of the United StatesThe United States is a federal union of fifty states. The original thirteen states were the successors of the thirteen colonies that rebelled against British rule. Most of the rest have been carved from territory obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. One set of exceptions comprises Vermont, Texas, and Hawaii: each was an independent republic before joining the union. Another set of exceptions comprises those states created out of the territory of the original thirteen. Early in the country's history, three states were created in this manner: Kentucky fromVirginia; Tennessee from North Carolina; and Maine from Massachusetts. During the American Civil War, West Virginia broke away from Virginia. The most recent state—Hawaii—achieved statehood on August 21, 1959. The states do not have the right to secede from the union.
The states compose the vast bulk of the U.S. land mass; the two other areas considered integral parts of the country are the District of Columbia, the federal district where the capital, Washington, is located; and Palmyra Atoll, an uninhabited but incorporated territory in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also possesses five major overseas territories: Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands in the Caribbean; and American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific. Those born in the territories (except for American Samoa) possess U.S. citizenship.
Foreign relations and military
The United States exercises global economic, political, and military influence. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and New York City hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, Sudan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States.
The United States enjoys a special relationship with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada,Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Israel, and fellow NATO members. It also works closely with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateralNorth American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. In 2005, the United States spent $27 billion on official development assistance, the most in the world. However, as a share of gross national income (GNI), the U.S. contribution of 0.22% ranked twentieth of twenty-two donor states. Nongovernmental sources such as private foundations, corporations, and educational and religious institutions donated $96 billion. The combined total of $123 billion is also the most in the world and seventh as a percentage of GNI.[45]
The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by theDepartment of Homeland Security in peacetime and the Department of the Navy in time of war. In 2005, the military had 1.38 million personnel on active duty,[46] along with several hundred thousand each in theReserves and the National Guard for a total of 2.3 million troops. The Department of Defense also employs about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors. Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System. American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft and aerial refueling tankers, the Navy's fleet of eleven active aircraft carriers, and Marine Expeditionary Units at sea in the Navy's Atlantic and Pacific fleets. Outside of the United States, the military is deployed to 770 bases and facilities, on every continent except Antarctica.[47] The extent of this global military presence has prompted some scholars to describe the United States as maintaining an "empire of bases."[48]
Total U.S. military spending in 2006, over $528 billion, was 46% of global military spending and greater than the next fourteen largest national military expenditures combined. (In purchasing power parity terms, it was larger than the next six such expenditures combined.) The per capita spending of $1,756 was about ten times the world average.[49] At 4.06% of GDP, U.S. military spending is ranked 27th out of 172 nations.[50]The proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2009, $515.4 billion, is a 7% increase over 2008 and a nearly 74% increase over 2001.[51]The cost of the Iraq War to the United States has been estimated to reach $2.7 trillion.[52] As of May 3, 2009, the United States had suffered 4,284 military fatalities during the war and over 31,000 wounded.[53]
Economy
Economic indicators Unemployment 9.4%July 2009[54] GDP growth −1.0%2Q 2009 [0.4%2008][55] CPI inflation −2.1%July 2008 – July 2009[56] Public debt $11.660 trillionAugust 6, 2009[57] Poverty 12.5%2007[58]
The United States has a capitalist mixed economy, which is fueled by abundant natural resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.[59] According to theInternational Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $14.3 trillion constitutes 23% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and almost 21% of the gross world product atpurchasing power parity (PPP).[4] The largest national GDP in the world, it was about 4% less than the combined GDP of the European Union at PPP in 2007.[60] The country ranks seventeenth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and sixth in GDP per capita at PPP.[4]The United States is the largest importer of goods and third largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners.[61] The leading export commodity is electrical machinery, while vehicles constitute the leading import.[62] The United States tops the overall ranking in the Global Competitiveness Report.[63] After an expansion that lasted just over six years, the U.S. economy has been in recession since December 2007.[64]
In 2009, the private sector is estimated to constitute 55.3% of the economy, with federal government activity accounting for 24.1% and state and local government activity (including federal transfers) the remaining 20.6%.[65] The economy is postindustrial, with the service sector contributing 67.8% of GDP.[66] The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is finance and insurance.[67] The United States remains an industrial power, with chemical products the leading manufacturing field.[68] The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its largest importer.[69] It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. While agriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP,[66] the United States is the world's top producer of corn[70] and soybeans.[71] The New York Stock Exchange is the world's largest by dollar volume.[72] Coca-Cola and McDonald's are the two most recognized brands in the world.[73]
In 2005, 155 million persons were employed with earnings, of whom 80% had full-time jobs.[74] The majority, 79%, were employed in the service sector.[1] With about 15.5 million people, health care and social assistance is the leading field of employment.[75] About 12% of workers are unionized, compared to 30% in Western Europe.[76] The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers.[77] Between 1973 and 2003, a year's work for the average American grew by 199 hours.[78] Partly as a result, the United States maintains the highest labor productivity in the world. However, it no longer leads in productivity per hour as it did from the 1950s through the early 1990s; workers in Norway, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg are now more productive per hour.[79] Compared to Europe, U.S. property and corporate income tax rates are generally higher, while labor and, particularly, consumption tax rates are lower.[80]
Income and human development
According to the United States Census Bureau, the pretax median household incomein 2007 was $50,233. The median ranged from $68,080 in Maryland to $36,338 inMississippi.[58] Using purchasing power parity exchange rates, the overall median is similar to the most affluent cluster of developed nations. After declining sharply during the middle of the 20th century, poverty rates have plateaued since the early 1970s, with 11–15% of Americans below the poverty line every year, and 58.5% spending at least one year in poverty between the ages of 25 and 75.[82][83] In 2007, 37.3 million Americans lived in poverty.[58] The U.S. welfare state is now among the most austere in the developed world, reducing both relative poverty and absolute poverty by considerably less than the mean for rich nations.[84][85] While the American welfare state does well in reducing poverty among the elderly,[86] the young receive relatively little assistance.[87] A 2007 UNICEF study of children's well-being in twenty-one industrialized nations ranked the United States next to last.[88]
Despite strong increases in productivity, low unemployment, and low inflation, income gains since 1980 have been slower than in previous decades, less widely shared, and accompanied by increased economic insecurity. Between 1947 and 1979, real median income rose by over 80% for all classes, with the incomes of poor Americans rising faster than those of the rich.[89][90] Median household income has increased for all classes since 1980,[91]largely owing to more dual-earner households, the closing of the gender gap, and longer work hours, but growth has been slower and strongly tilted toward the very top (see graph).[84][89][92] Consequently, the share of income of the top 1%—21.8% of total reported income in 2005—has more than doubled since 1980,[93] leaving the United States with the greatest income inequality among developed nations.[84][94] The top 1% pays 27.6% of all federal taxes; the top 10% pays 54.7%.[95] Wealth, like income, is highly concentrated: The richest 10% of the adult population possesses 69.8% of the country's household wealth, the second-highest share among developed nations.[96] The top 1% possesses 33.4% of net wealth.[97]
Science and technology
The United States has been a leader in scientific research and technological innovation since the late 19th century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas Edison's laboratory developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first viable movie camera. Nikola Tesla pioneered alternating current, the AC motor, and radio. In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford promoted the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.[98] The rise ofNazism in the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein and Enrico Fermi, to immigrate to the United States. During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age. The Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and computers. The United States largely developed the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet. Today, the bulk of research and development funding, 64%, comes from the private sector.[99] The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.[100] Americans possess high levels of technological consumer goods,[101] and almost half of U.S. households have broadband Internet access.[102] The country is the primary developer and grower of genetically modified food; more than half of the world's land planted with biotech crops is in the United States.[103]
Transportation
Everyday personal transportation in America is dominated by the automobile. As of 2003, there were 759 automobiles per 1,000 Americans, compared to 472 per 1,000 inhabitants of the European Union the following year.[105] About 40% of personal vehicles are vans, SUVs, or light trucks.[106] The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and nondrivers) spends 55 minutes driving every day, traveling 29 miles (47 km).[107] The civil airline industry is entirely privatized, while most major airports are publicly owned. The four largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are American; Southwest Airlines is number one.[108] Of the world's thirty busiest passenger airports, sixteen are in the United States, includingthe busiest.[109] While transport of goods by rail is extensive, relatively few people use rail to travel, within or between cities.[110] Only 9% of total U.S. work trips use mass transit, compared to 38.8% in Europe.[111] Bicycle usage is minimal, well below European levels.[112]
Energy
The United States energy market is 29,000 terawatt hours per year. Energy consumption per capita is 7.8 tons of oil equivalent per year, compared to Germany's 4.2 tons and Canada's 8.3 tons. In 2005, 40% of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources.[113] The United States is the world's largest consumer of petroleum.[114] For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries. In 2007, several applications for new nuclear plants were filed.[115]
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